As countries prepare to finalise a climate agreement in Paris in December, global leaders like the United States and the European Union are releasing intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs), which are country specific action plans that outline how they intend to reduce global warming emissions. An analysis from the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) evaluated how the INDCs from the U.S., the EU and Mexico address land use emissions, which include those from agriculture and forestry. UCS found that the U.S. and EU INDCs fall short in describing what they will do to reduce land use emissions, but that Mexico’s contribution ambitiously addresses emissions from this sector.
Doug Boucher, director of UCS’s Tropical Forest and Climate Initiative. Photo credit: ucsusa.org
“With land use sector emissions accounting for 25 percent of all global warming pollution, it is essential that countries with the potential to reduce emissions in this sector – like the U.S., EU, and Mexico – clearly commit to doing so in their INDCs,” saidDoug Boucher, director of UCS’s Tropical Forest and Climate Initiative. “If we want to stay under two degrees, then we need to tackle emissions on all fronts, including the land use sector.”
The report, “The Land Sector in the First INDCs: Intended Climate Contributions of the United States, the European Union, and Mexico,” examined and compared the INDC’s in terms of transparency, ambition, accounting standards and proposed actions.
This analysis follows up on an earlier UCS report, “Halfway There,” which found that of the eight countries that make up 57 percent of all land use emissions, the U.S. has the greatest potential for emission reductions in the land use sector. Unfortunately, the U.S. INDC does not include actions to address emissions from agriculture and forestry.
Another area for concern within the U.S. INDC is language suggesting that the U.S. plans to exclude emissions from natural disturbances. This exclusion clause could create perverse incentives against improving forest management.
“It is disappointing to see the U.S. neglect to address emissions from agriculture and forestry – especially when the potential for reductions is so considerable,” said Boucher.
The EU INDC similarly does not contain action or mitigation plans to address land use emissions, but includes vague language referencing land use emissions. The EU INDC mentions that policies on how to include land use emissions will be established as soon as “technical conditions allow.” The INDC does not however go into detail about what these technical conditions are or why they are preventing the EU from planning to reduce land use emissions.
This is despite the fact that a recent EU study found that small dietary changes to eliminate some high emissions foods, such as beef, could reduce agricultural emissions by 28 percent. Again, the potential to realize emissions reductions from the land use sector is being overlooked.
“While the U.S. and the EU INDCs offer cause for concern, Mexico’s emissions reduction target genuinely addresses the land use sector,” said Boucher. “Mexico is a true leader in this sense.”
Mexico’s detailed emissions reduction plans specifically mention action to reduce deforestation to zero by 2030, increasing reforestation, restoring ecosystems, and improving agricultural sustainability. As a developing country, Mexico only has so many resources to implement this action plan without foreign assistance. The country pledged to reduce pollution by 25 percent on their own and by 40 percent if offered international financing.
“Emissions from land use represent a significant piece of the problem and must be addressed if the world is to avoid the worst impacts of climate change,” said Boucher. “Moving forward, the U.S. and the EU should take a page from the Mexico playbook and amend their INDCs to account for land use emissions.”
Although gas prices are temporarily low at the pump, long-term energy costs are on the rise. According to State of the World 2015 contributing author Nathan John Hagens, a former hedge fund manager who teaches human macro-ecology at the University of Minnesota, nations are papering over those costs with debt. Higher energy costs are leading to continued recessions, excess claims on future natural resources, and more-severe social inequality and poverty.
Rising energy costs will endanger highly energy-intensive industries and practices. Photo credit: blogs-worldwatch.org
The relatively low cost of energy extraction compared to the benefits obtained from fossil fuels has been perhaps the most important factor in the industrialised world’s economic success. Historically, large quantities of inexpensive fuels were available even after accounting for the energy lost to extract and process them. But, as remaining fuels become less accessible, higher energy costs will have ripple effects through economies built around continued large energy-input requirements. Rising costs will endanger highly energy-intensive industries and practices – including the energy sector itself – as well as widen and deepen poverty as everything becomes more expensive.
“Despite having ‘plenty of energy,’ higher physical costs (of extraction) suggest that energy likely will rise from a historical average of five percent of GDP (gross domestic product), to 10–15 percent of GDP or higher,” writes Hagens.
In the short term, nations are taking on growing debt to avoid losses in GDP – an indicator of the economic health of a country. Since 2008, the Group of Seven nations (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States) have added about $1 trillion per year in nominal GDP, but only by increasing their debt by over $18 trillion.
However, continued use of credit to mask the declining productivity of energy extraction is unsustainable. For each additional debt dollar, less and less GDP is generated, and, at the same time, our highest-energy-gain fuels are being depleted. Energy is becoming more expensive for the creditor in the future than for the debtor in the present.
“We have entered a period of unknown duration where things are going to be tough,” writes Hagens. “But humanity in the past has responded in creative, unexpected ways with new inventions and aspirations.” While policy choices such as banking reform, a carbon and consumption tax, and moving away from GDP as a proxy for well-being are good long-term ideas, “we urgently need institutions and populations to begin to prepare…for a world with the same or less each year instead of more.”
Worldwatch’s State of the World 2015investigates hidden threats to sustainability, including economic, political, and environmental challenges that are often underreported in the media. Worldwatch is an independent research organisation based in Washington, D.C. that works on energy, resource, and environmental issues. The Institute’s State of the World report is published annually in more than a dozen languages.
Danielle Nierenberg, President, Food Tank, sheds some light on the theme of the 2015 World Environment Day
Danielle Nieremberg, President, Food Tank
Friday, June 5, is World Environment Day (WED) which celebrates positive environmental action and calls on each of us to create change. The theme of WED – “Seven Billion Dreams. One Planet. Consume with Care” – reminds us that we only have one planet, and that the Earth’s natural resources are finite, not unlimited.
According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), if current consumption and production patterns remain the same with a rising population, by 2050, we will need three planets to sustain our way of living and consuming.
Food production is a major culprit in the consumption of natural resources, accounting for 10 percent of the energy consumed in the United States, 80 percent of freshwater consumed, and 50 percent of land usage.
Sustainable America’s “I Value Food” campaign highlights the numbers involved in food waste. In fact, according to I Value Food, American consumers spend US$371 per person per year on food that gets wasted; on average, food travels 1,500 miles from farm to table. Twenty-six percent of meat products end up in landfills, which adds up to more than 47 billion wasted calories—or enough to feed 8,600 children for a year.
U.N. secretary-general Ban Ki-moon says, “Although individual decisions may seem small in the face of global threats and trends, when billions of people join forces in common purpose, we can make a tremendous difference.”
This WED – and every day – we can all take steps to minimise food-related resource consumption. Here are a few ways to consume food more responsibly:
Waste not, want not: In the United States, 40 percent of edible food is wasted. Throwing away good food wastes natural resources. There are many simple things eaters can do to reduce household food waste. Plan meals and inventory your refrigerator and freezer before heading to the store. Buy only what you need and will realistically use. Repurpose leftovers and food scraps. Portion carefully. Freeze or preserve excess food before it goes bad. Donate good food to food banks before throwing it away. Last but not least, compost what you can’t use in any other way.
If you want to get more involved in reducing food waste, here are some organisations doing important work on that issue:
Andrea Segrè, president of the Last Minute Market (LMM), analyses steps in the food chain to see where waste originates. LMM recovers and reuses unsold good from mass retailers.
In Berlin, Culinary Misfits repurposes ugly produce for use in catering.
DC Central Kitchen has recovered hundreds of thousands of pounds of food which they use to feed those in need.
Feedback works to end global food waste at every level of the food system through awareness events and repurposing campaigns.
Food Recovery Network creates food recovery programmes on college campuses across the country to salvage food that would otherwise be thrown away.
The Food Waste Reduction Alliance aims to keep food out of landfills and increase distribution of food to those in need.
FUSIONS tries to reduce Europe’s natural resource consumption by decreasing food waste.
Jonathan Bloom has been researching and writing about food waste since 2005 and his blog, Wasted Food, draws attention to how consumers can cut their waste.
Love Food Hate Waste is educating consumers in the United Kingdom about food waste.
Society of Saint Andrew salvages food from America’s farms and delivers it to food pantries.
Danish food waste expert Selina Juul founded the Stop Wasting Food movement in Denmark which has gathered thousands of followers as well as support from over 90 politicians, including members of parliament in Denmark and across Europe.
Think.Eat.Save seeks to raise awareness of and galvanize global action on food waste.
Buy organic when you can. There are more benefits to organic than simply avoiding toxins. Organic agriculture is inherently low-input, involving fewer natural resources, and embraces closed-loop systems that recycle those resources that are used. The U.S. Department of Agriculture organic standards include sustainability requirements, ensuring that organic producers are preserving natural resources and protecting biodiversity.
Choose foods with less packaging, or bring your own. Buy fresh, whole foods, and buy in bulk when possible. If buying in bulk, bring your own container or bag. Skip the produce bag or bring a reused one from home. If your grocery store offers it, buy milk in a glass bottle from a company that will reuse it.
Eat fewer industrial meat products. Michael Pollan put it best: “Eat food. Not too much. Mostly plants.” Industrial meat production consumes vastly more natural resources than plant-based agriculture. According to the Water Footprint Network, one pound of beef requires almost two thousand gallons of water. Even the federal nutrition panel emphasized choosing a plant-based diet for a sustainable food system in their new nutrition guideline recommendations. If you are going to consume animal products, buy from your local farmer, and buy grass-fed and pasture-raised. Go vegan one day a week or one meal a day.
Grow your own. On a patio, in a window box, in your kitchen, in your backyard, in a community garden; every little bit counts. You’ll reduce your food miles, avoid the unsustainable practices of industrial food production, and learn to value your food more.
If you do grow your own food, plant drought-tolerant crops, water in the evening, or use an irrigation system to save water. If you don’t, encourage your farmer to use these practices.
Encourage policymakers to support sustainable agriculture. Vote for representatives (and then write to them!) locally and nationally who support sustainable agriculture legislation and programs, and who are willing to stop subsidizing overproduction, unsustainable practices, and waste in our agriculture system. Organizations such as Food Policy Action are changing the national dialogue by holding legislators accountable for how they vote on policy that affects food and farming.
Make responsible, conscientious food choices. Not all food is created equal. Some products are less sustainable than others. Check how far your food has traveled, and choose items that journeyed a shorter distance, such as fruits from Florida or California instead of South America or Asia. When buying seafood, choose those items that are most eco-friendly, such as wild-caught Alaskan salmon, sardines, or Chesapeake Bay catfish—products that don’t devastate the ecosystems from which they are harvested.
A breakthrough study sponsored by Wetlands International in collaboration with the Rivers State University of Science and Technology (RSUST) has successfully completed work on developing coherent information base on the ecosystem services delivered by various Niger Delta habitats.
Participants at the Wetlands International Nigeria-sponsored Sustainable Livelihoods and Biodiversity Project (SLBP) Restitution and Validation of the Niger Delta workshop: From left to right: Elizabeth Odetola (Wetlands International, Nigeria), Prof. Ike Ekweozor (The Dean of Science, Rivers State University of Science and Technology), Michael Uwagbae (Wetlands International, Nigeria), Ward Hagemeijer (Wetlands International, Netherlands), Dr. Ndinga Assitou (Wetlands International Africa, Dakar), Barineme B. Fakae (Vice Chancellor, Rivers State University of Science and Technology), John Onwuteak (Rivers state University of Science and Technology) and Dr. Chovwen (Living Earth Nigeria Foundation).
Results of the study conducted by the Department of Applied and Environmental Biology of the RSUST, Port Harcourt, were validated at a recent workshop held in the Rivers State capital. The research which was conducted between February 2014 and April 2015 examined six ecosystem services associated with the communities identified from a listing and defined through both public and expert focus groups. These include Fish Nursery and Breeding, Forest Carbon Sequestration, Enhancing soil quality of stunted mangrove area, Water Quality Enhancement, Shoreline Protection and Erosion Control.
The workshop, held under the sponsorship of Wetlands International’s Sustainable Livelihoods and Biodiversity Project (SLBP), was on the values people place on ecosystem services in model communities of the Niger Delta.
Among the significance of the workshop was to provide information from the study on the role of wetland ecosystem services in supporting livelihoods in parts of the Niger Delta, with specific emphasis on the use of Geographic Information System (GIS) maps in highlighting the range and distribution of ecosystem service types linked to the different ecological zones, as well as the societal values of these ecosystem services, stakeholder linkages, and degree of access to services and possibility of improving livelihoods through wise use of resources.
The workshop was also able to provide information on a global feat achieved from the study which was the use of satellite imagery in the differentiation of Nypa Palm (Nypa fruticans) from mangrove plants. The information acquired from the imagery provides the opportunity to evaluate the “healthy state” capacity of the wetland ecosystems to deliver different ecosystem services in the Niger Delta. The health of the wetland ecosystem determines either a sustained flow of a variety of services or a maximum amount of one specific service.
Additionally, the massive land take of Nypa palm in parts of Niger Delta region and the gradual invasion in other areas of the region and their restriction to “one-to-no service” category can now be measured and integrated in any assessment across the member states in Nigeria’s Niger Delta.
Furthermore, the workshop provided step working structures that can be adopted to guide future work on ecosystem services in the Niger Delta. It provided operational structure of the five-step approach including mapping of the concerned wetland ecosystems, assessment of the condition of the wetland ecosystems and quantification of the services provided by the wetland ecosystems in pilot/model sites. Others are stakeholder mapping and their metrics of the wetland ecosystems and the conduct of an ecosystem valuation using an empirical choice experiment.
The workshop similarly afforded basic understanding of the habitat types with wetland characteristics in the Niger Delta.
Likewise, the workshop produced awareness on the need to complete inventory, documentation and re-classification of the Niger Delta wetland ecosystem that would ensure a coherent approach to support their integration into a wetland accounting system across member states in the Niger Delta.
On the overall, the workshop showed evidence of the use of pluralism and grass root participation from community stakeholders to value and quantification of indirect use ecosystem services for integration into traditional cost benefit analysis.
Beyond validating findings from the study, the workshop brought together several scientists across institutions in Nigeria and across Africa with the focus on raising awareness among key stakeholders on the importance of the Niger Delta ecosystems to human well-being and economic prosperity.
Key speakers include Professor B. B. Fakae (Vice Chancellor, RSUST), Dr. John Onwuteaka (also of RSUST who was the Principal Investigator), Professor Stella Madueme (University of Nigeria, Nsukka), Dr. Ndinga Assitou (Wetlands International Africa, Dakar), Mr. Ward Hagemeijer (Wetlands International, Netherlands) and Dr. Richard Mulwa of the Centre for advanced Studies in Environmental Law and Policy (CASELAP), University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Nigerian urban planner, Yacoob Abiodun, has called on his professional colleagues to protect the elements of physical development plans and avoid them being distorted. Similarly, he emphasised that, in the process of preparation of blueprints for cities, planners should define what such city wants to showcase.
An impression of the Mall of the World, Dubai. Photo credit: azurdigital.com
He spoke against the backdrop of developments on Dubai, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), where officials last year unveiled plans to build “Mall of the World”, an expansive climate-controlled shopping complex, in an apparent bid to maintain the city’s status as a tourist destination. According to Abiodun, Dubai’s concept of planning is primarily to make the city a tourism hub all-year-round for all tourists from all countries of the world.
His words: “Tourism is an economic booster and revenue-generating for any city government. With due respect, most of our Development Plans lack focus, vision, mission and target of achievement! The elements of the plans are not usually protected from abuse and that is why you have cases where the land uses are tampered with contrary to what the plans recommend. Even the government and town planning officials that are supposed to enforce compliance of the master plans, are the chief violators. It is sad.
“For our cities to develop orderly and user/investment-friendly, each must define what such city wants to showcase the way Dubai did. Dubai’s plan emphasised tourism and it is working perfectly for the city because all hands are on deck to accomplish that task.
“Dubai’s government provides the enabling environment, while the planners protect the Development Plan from unpermitted development, not planning its atrophy through connivance, corruption and unethical planning practice which, sadly, has become the norm among our town planners.”
Indeed, Dubai is already home to the tallest tower in the world, so it was just a matter of time until the glitzy emirate planned another record-breaking construction.
Its next project involves building the largest shopping mall on the planet, complete with climate-controlled streets, the world’s largest indoor theme park and 100 hotels and apartments.
In fact, the ambitious emirate has dubbed the project a ‘temperature-controlled pedestrian city’.
Occupying 48 million square feet, the Mall of the World will also contain health resorts, theatres, a Celebration Steet modelled on the Ramblas boulevard in Barcelona and ‘retail streets network’ that will stretch over four-and-a-half miles.
The grand project is part of Dubai’s bid to become a year-round tourism destination, despite soaring temperatures in summer that can reach nearly 50C.
The new mall, which will be a city-within-a-city, will be the emirate’s chance to attract visitors even in the height of the summer, by providing a completely climate-controlled experience.
The shopping mall itself will occupy eight million square feet, housed below a glass dome, with other attractions extending beyond the central shopping area.
In the cooler winter months, the dome will open, allowing people to shop in the fresh air, closing as the summer heats up.
It is thought the huge construction will attract 180 million visitors a year and developers hope it will secure Dubai’s futures as a tourism hub.
The emirate’s ruler and vice president of the UAE Sheikh Mohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, said: “This project complements our plans to transform Dubai into a cultural, tourist and economic hub for the two billion people living in the region around us; and we are determined to achieve our vision.
“The growth in family and retail tourism underpins the need to enhance Dubai’s tourism infrastructure as soon as possible.
“We are confident of our economy’s strength, optimistic about our country’s future and we continue to broaden our vision.”
The supersized mall will be built near the existing Mall of the Emirates, already one of the largest shopping centres in the world, with its own indoor ski slope.
It will also be a short drive to the world’s tallest tower, the Burj Khalifa, which stands at 2,717ft.
The idea is to create a cultural area, with theatres hosting shows at West End and Broadway levels, as well as a network of streets that will be entirely climate controlled.
Sheikh Mohammad stated: “Our ambitions are higher than having seasonal tourism – tourism is key driver of our economy and we aim to make the UAE an attractive destination all-year long.
“This is why we will start working on providing pleasant temperature-controlled environments during the summer months.”
Rising from the three-day 4th African Sanitation and Hygiene Conference tagged “AfricaSan4″, African leaders have issued the “Ngor Declaration on Sanitation and Hygiene”, which aims to achieve universal access to adequate and sustainable sanitation, safe hygiene services and eliminate open defecation by 2030.
They also reaffirmed their commitment to the human right to water and sanitation for all for all Africans, and pledged to work towards progressively eliminating inequalities that currently deny about 547 million people in Africa access to safe sanitation.
Another major highlight of the declaration is a commitment by countries to fund sanitation and hygiene budget to a minimum of 0.5% of GDP by 2020.
The triennial AfricaSan organised by the African Ministers’ Council on Water (AMCOW) aims to address Africa’s sanitation challenge including helping agencies and governments shape strategies for action at many levels. Mainly attended by sanitation technical experts, it provides a forum to to exchange lessons, to identify approaches and technologies that work best in their local circumstances. This 4th AfricaSan water held in Dakar, Senegal, last week.
Text of the “Ngor Declaration on Sanitation and Hygiene” adopted by the African Ministers responsible for sanitation and hygiene on 27 May 2015 at AficaSan4.
Preamble
We, the Ministers and Head of Delegations responsible for sanitation and hygiene in Africa, together with senior civil servants, academics, civil society, development partners and private sector at the 4th African Conference on Sanitation and Hygiene (AfricaSan), convened by the Government of Senegal with support from the African Ministers’ Council on Water (AMCOW) in Dakar, Senegal, May 25-27, 2015
Recognising that while an estimated 133 million people living in Africa gained improved sanitation since 1990, the level of progress has not kept pace with demograpic change; many countries do not have adequate high-level leadership, financial and human resources to implement existing policies, fail to tackle equity, do not build, manage or maintain sanitation system and services, or create the large-scale hygiene behaviour change;
Mindful that an estimated 61% of people living in Africa do not have access to improve sanitation and that 21% still defecate in the open;
Noting that this lack pf access to improved sanitation together with poor hygiene practice result in a huge burden of disease and that the associated economic, human, social, health and environmental costs are a major burden on African countries;
Reaffirming the human right of safe drinking water and sanitation for all;
Welcoming the aspiration of the draft Sustainable Development Goals which include an explicit target to “By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and an end to open defecation, paying special attention to the need of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations” committing to integrating these in national policies and plans;
And recognising that the time has come to incorporate the lesson from the eThekwini commitments and replace them by the “Ngor Declaration on Sanitation and Hygiene”, setting out in particular clear indicator for monitoring progress;
The Vision articulated by African Ministers responsible for Sanitation and Hygiene at African 4, Dakar, Senegal, is summarised below: Achieve universal access to adequate and sustainable sanitation and hygiene services and eliminate open defecation by 2030. Commitments
To realise this vision, our governments commit to:-
Focus on the poorest, most marginalised and unserved aimed at progressively eliminating inequities in access and use and implement national and local strategies with emphasis on equity and sustainability;
Mobilise support and resources at the highest political level for sanitation and hygiene to disproportionately prioritise sanitation and hygiene in national development plans.
Establish and track sanitation and hygiene budget lines that consistently increase annually to reach a minimum of 0.5%GDP by 2020;
Ensure strong leadership and coordination at all levels to build and sustain governance for sanitation and hygiene across sectors especially water, health, nutrition, education, gender and the environment;
Develop and fund strategies to bridge the sanitation and hygiene human resource capacity gap at all levels;
Ensure inclusive, safely-managed sanitation services and function hand-washing facilities in public institutions and spaces;
Progressively eliminate untreated waste, encouraging its productive use;
Enable and engage the private sector in developing innovative sanitation and hygiene products and services especially for the marginalized and unserved;
Establish government-led monitoring, reporting, evaluating, learning and review systems;
Enable continued active engagement with AMCOW’s AfricaSan process.
We further call on:
All people living in Africa, especially the youth, to utilize and maintain sanitation and hygiene services with propriety and dignity;
AMCOW to prioritise and facilitate adequate resourcing for sanitation and hygiene by mobilising dedicated, substantive new sources of financing;
AMCOW to facilitate the establishment and management of systems and processes for performance monitoring and accountability against the Ngor Declaration;
Training institutions in Africa to strengthen local capacity to deliver appropriate services in line with demand;
research institutions in Africa to strengthen the evidence base and develop innovative locally appropriate solutions;
Civil society in Africa to forge a cohesive, coherent and transparent vision and strategy to work with all stakeholders to achieve the Ngor Declaration;
Traditional institutions, religious leaders and faith based organisations to strongly support equitable sanitation and hygiene activities in their communities;
The private sector to increase its engagement in the entire sanitation and hygiene value chain to improve innovation and efficiency;
Development banks, donors and partners to increase their support to government led efforts for universal access to sanitation and hygiene and to match this financial support with responsible accountable engagement.
And in recognition of this we make this declaration in Ngor, Dakar on 27th May, 2015.
The main challenge, in general, is to keep climate change from becoming a catastrophe. To this end, two sets of measures have often been advocated for confronting climate change. These are mitigation measures (such as reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases and black soot) to prevent the degree of climate change from becoming unmanageable; and adaptation measures (such as building irrigation systems and adjusting agricultural practices) to reduce the harm from climate change that proves unavoidable. While mitigation seeks to limit climate change by reducing climate change by reducing the emissions of GHG and by enhancing ‘sink’ opportunities, adaptation aims to alleviate the adverse impacts through a wide-range of system-specific actions.
Prof. Emmanuel Olukayode Oladipo
Overcoming the development challenge of climate change requires that more extensive adaptation and mitigation measures than is currently being applied are necessary to reduce vulnerability to future climate change. Future vulnerability will depend not only on the degree of climate change but also on the development “pathway” taken, as well as capacity put in place to cope with the climate change stress. Mitigating GHG emissions and enhancing the adaptive capacity to increase resilience can accelerate the pace of progress towards sustainable development. Adapting to climate change involves reducing exposure and sensitivity and increasing adaptive capacity to build a climate-resilient society. This will be a society that is able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult conditions caused by the adverse effects of climate change, including climate-related hazards and disasters.
Mitigation
Agriculture is a significant contributor to GHGs, particularly in a developing country like Nigeria. It is estimated that about 10 to 12 per cent of total anthropogenic emissions of GHGs are directly generated in agriculture (mostly nitrous oxide from fertilized soils and methane from livestock). If indirect emissions from the fertilizer industry and emissions from deforestation and land conversion are added, the total contribution of the agriculture sector is increased to about 26-35 per cent.
A variety of options for mitigation (reduction of GHGs) exist in agriculture. They fall into three broad categories:
Reducing emissions of methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide through efficient management of the flows of these gases in agricultural ecosystems for example, through managing livestock to make more efficient use of feed;
Enhancing removals of carbon dioxide through improved management of forestry and agro ecosystems for enhanced carbon recovery and carbon storage. Afforestation and reforestation are measures that can be taken to enhance biological carbon sequestration. The IPCC calculated that a global programme to 2050 involving reduced deforestation, enhanced neutral generation of tropical forests and worldwide re-afforestation could sequester 6.0 – 8.7 trillion metric tonnes of atmosphere carbon, equivalent to some 12 – 15% of projected CO2 emissions from fossil fuel burning for that period. Agro-forestry systems in particular contribute simultaneously to buffering farmers against climate variability and changing climates, and to reducing atmospheric loads of GHGs. With the current advance made in the Greenwall Project, Nigeria can focus on the potential to use forests as one of the strategies towards becoming carbon neutral.
Avoiding (or displacing) emissions using crops and residues from agricultural lands as a source of fuel, either directly or after conversion to fuels such as ethanol or diesel. GHG emissions, notably carbon dioxide, can also be avoided by agricultural management practices that forestall the cultivations of new lands now under forest, grassland or other non-agricultural vegetation.
Other mitigation measures that have proven effective include:
promotion of increased use of renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, geothermal etc.;
development of energy efficient buildings; and
promotion of energy-saving transportation systems.
In these key parts of the economy (renewables, building efficiency, and transportation), win-win (i.e. mutually beneficial outcomes) and double dividend (i.e. simultaneous benefits, e.g. monetary and social) employment scenarios are encouragingly evident (see UNEP/ILO/ITUC Report on “Green Jobs: Towards Sustainable Work in a Low Carbon World”)
Adaptation
This can be both autonomous and planned. Autonomous adaptation is the ongoing implementation of existing knowledge and technology in response to the changes in climate experienced. Planned adaptation is the increase in adaptive capacity by mobilising institutions and policies to establish or strengthen conditions that are favourable to effective adaptation and investment in new technologies and infrastructure. Various sectors will have their adaption measures. They are extensively covered in HBS (2009).
Focusing on agriculture, examples of autonomous adaptations for smallholder farmers that are characteristic of Nigeria may include:
changing inputs such as crop varieties and/or species and using inputs with increased resistance to heat shock and drought; altering fertilizer rates to maintain grain or fruit quality consistent with the climate; and altering amounts and timing of irrigation and other water management practices;
making wider use of technologies to ‘harvest’ water, to conserve soil moisture (e.g. crop residue retention) and to use water more effectively in areas where there is a decrease in rainfall;
utilising water management to prevent water-logging, erosion and nutrient leaching in areas where there is an increase in rainfall;
altering the timing or location of cropping activities;
diversifying income by integrating into farming activities additional activities such as livestock raising; and
using seasonal climate forecasting to reduce production risk.
While many of these measures are effective against a degree of climatic variability, they may become insufficient in the face of accelerating climate change. Planned approach for adaptation is therefore needed to secure sustainable livelihoods. This will have to incorporate additional information, technologies and investments, infrastructures and institutions and integrate them with the decision-making environment. Others are insurances, safety nets and cash transfers to reduce vulnerability to climate change-induced shocks. In agricultural terms, technical options may include many forms of land use and land use change, new cultivation practices, new seed varieties, etc. It must include an appropriate incentive structure, such as targeted payment for environmental services, which can expand the options that poor communities and indigenous peoples can have for both adaptation and mitigation. All these are now captured in what is termed “climate smart agriculture”.
Adaptation strategies should be properly targeted to avoid negative impacts, such as increasing competition for existing resources – for example, improving plant productivity may increase water demand for irrigation systems in dryland areas, which decreases the availability of water for those who have no access to irrigation schemes.
Good Practice Principles
Whatever mitigation and adaptation measures are being considered for adoption or implementation, they must be guided by good practice principles. Good practices are actions that are effective in meeting established goals and deemed to be appropriate and acceptable by a broad range of stakeholders. In climate change response, these may include:
Integrated programme approach: Climate change is a complex multi-sectoral environmental and development challenge. Fragmentation of issues across multiple policy platforms and narrowly bounded institutional mandates encourages unilateral, single-sector responses, discourages innovative leadership and inhibits development of policy actions informed by the full complexity of climate change challenges. Thus, sectoral and small-scale uncoordinated interventions will not adequately address the challenge of climate change in the State for impact. A multi-sectoral national programme, financed and implemented in a coherent and integrated manner over a period of time is imperative for an effective state response to the challenge of climate change, within a national framework. What is required is a state programme of action (minimum 10 years timeframe), developed through stakeholders’ consultations, properly financed and implemented in an integrated manner through various institutions, but led by the Ministry of Environment, particularly the Climate Change Unit (if existing).
Knowledge building: The complex and dynamic nature of climate change makes it imperative for the need to undertake research into its physical and socio-economic basis for improved national understanding of the global dimensions of climate change and to be able to communicate the issues to the general populace through a coordinated advocacy and awareness creation strategy. Empowering the populace through improved knowledge about the climate change challenge will put them in a better position to identify, plan and implement adaptive measures that will enhance their resilience. In this regard, the designing of climate change projects must be built upon or applied the findings of specific research projects and/or vulnerability studies. Also, there is need to ensure that the projects actively contribute to national and international understanding on a specific topic or area of research.
Community participation and inclusiveness: Climate change management in Nigeria requires a shift to an integrated approach that advances change responses which are closely intertwined with development choices and driven by multi-stakeholder identification (up to community level) and implementation of priority mitigation and adaptation measures. In this regard, the State Ministry of Environment, particularly the Climate Change Unit, will have to lead a process of collaborating with relevant MDAs to formulate and mobilize resources for the implementation of sectoral programmes and projects, particularly in climate sensitive sectors such as agriculture, water, health, energy, infrastructure etc. In other words, projects designed to mitigate or adapt to climate change in the State must result from consultation with local communities in the formulation, implementation and decision making process, with the incorporation of gender issues.
Political ownership, collaboration and approval: Projects designed to mitigate or adapt to climate change need to secure high-level political support for their activities and be aligned with wider development agendas to ensure success. Thus, the Ministry of Environment will need the support of the high-level governance in the State for the establishment of an enabling policy, legal and regulatory framework for the state’s response to climate change in order to be able to develop and implement a comprehensive mitigation and adaptation programme measures.
Financial sustainability: Financing for climate change mitigation and adaptation activities will be costly if the State is to fully address the challenge of climate change. Annual budget allocations will be extremely inadequate to enable Ondo State implement an integrated response to the challenge of climate change. What is required is a pool of resources into which state and external funds can be made available on a sustainable basis to upscale state response for effectiveness. This will ensure that projects designed to mitigate or adapt to climate change in the state secure financing for sustaining and/or expanding the project’s impacts beyond the initial project lifetime.
Achieving co-benefits and balancing trade-off: Projects designed to mitigate or adapt to climate change must take into consideration the costs and benefits external to the project such as employment, environment, health, poverty levels and food security. Projects must aim to maximise external co-benefits from project activities and avoid/minimise external costs and damages.
Building local capacity: The most important variable that determines whether the State is able to address the challenge of climate change and achieve sustainable development is human and institutional capacity, and appropriate regulatory and legal framework. Projects designed to mitigate or adapt to climate change in the State should, therefore, ensure that local capacity is built during their implementation. In this regard, mitigation and adaptation projects must integrate training programmes into core project activities and measures taken to assure that built human capacity is maintained and replicated beyond the project’s lifetime.
Transferable: Projects designed to mitigate or adapt to climate change must ensure that their activities can be transferred beyond the specific contexts in which they were implemented. Particular project measures, activities or concepts should be easily applied in another context or regions.
Monitoring and evaluation: Projects designed to mitigate or adapt to climate change in the State must demonstrate their impacts in terms of achieving the project objectives, outcomes, and outputs, as well developing indicators to measure success and effectiveness. In other words, good mitigation and adaptation projects must have explicit logical framework with appropriate monitoring and evaluation mechanisms.
Possible policy options for an effective state response
Minimising the impact of climate change and increasing resilience for sustainable development, whether through mitigation or adaptation option requires a strategic approach, that will enable the movement towards a greener and sustainable development. To this end, a two-pronged strategy proposed by ESCAP can be adopted. The first strategy is to take advantage of the investment opportunities created in mitigation measures to reduce GHG emissions. As this should be complemented by a behavioural change, the second strategy focuses on how to promote a shift in the attitude towards climate change.
Strategy 1: Taking advantage of the current investment opportunities in green technologies for mitigation and adaptation:
The imperative to reduce GHG emissions is encouraging Governments to redirect investment away from energy-intensive economic activity based on fossil fuels and towards low-carbon, greener technology and industrial activity that could also to improve access to services that meet the basic needs of the poor. Nigeria needs to adopt its own green growth approach in order to maintain its competitiveness in goods and services, which can lead to greener, more sustainable development within the national framework. Such a strategy will prepare the ground for the country to pursue a path of sustainable development. The state may consider appropriate policies towards mitigation for green development that may include:
Improving energy efficiency, including the use of efficient production technologies and a behavioural change in energy use.
Reducing vehicle emissions through a number of policies that encourage cleaner fuel use and promotion of mass transit schemes, including bus rapid transit (BRT) coupled with the integration of non-motorized transport in urban areas while shifting freight from road to rail and water transport.
Reducing GHG emissions in agriculture through the use of improved technologies, including (i) applying modern irrigation and water management practices; (ii) applying fertilizers tailored to the condition of the soil; (iii) strengthening the management of animal waste, the treatment of solid and liquid waste, and using methane emissions to produce renewable energy.
Managing waste to reduce methane emission, including conversion of solid waste into compost and organic fertilizer; recovering methane from landfills, recovering energy during waste incinerations and controlling wastewater treatment.
Strategy 2: Promoting a shift in the attitude towards climate change
Policies towards mitigation will not be effective without a major shift in the way goods and services are produced and consumed, including activities that promote environmental sustainability and enhance adaptive capacity. This can be done in number of ways, including:
Seeing response to climate change as a shared responsibility. This means that every individual, firm and Government has a responsibility to protect the environment to make it more climate-friendly.
Promoting carbon-neutral lifestyles among individuals (e.g. car pooling to work) and promoting carbon-neutral products or services for government support.
Reversing deforestation. Deforestation accounts for between 20 and 25% of global CO2 Agro-forestry systems in particular contribute simultaneously to buffering farmers against climate variability and changing climates, and to reducing atmospheric loads of GHGs. Thus, reversing deforestation, through appropriate policies and programmes, is critical for climate change mitigation; it is also a relatively low-cost strategy.
Five critical elements that could significantly strengthen the ability of the Government at all levels to make effective adaptation decisions include:
Consistent public engagement on climate change issues, to ensure that people appreciate the risks, understand policy decisions, and have a voice in how they are implemented and monitored.
Enhanced public accessibility to relevant information (e.g. weather data) that can be used effectively to make informed decisions for varying time-scales.
Strengthened institutions that will allow governments to coordinate among agencies and stakeholders at all levels and to prioritize climate risks in planning and policymaking processes.
Sustained financial, human, ecological, and social resources at every level and over time.
R&D and tools (e.g. hazard/vulnerability mapping) to assess climate risks and vulnerabilities, improve on adaptation planning and facilitate decision making.
In the long-term, we must realise that addressing climate change is no simple task. To protect ourselves, our economy, and our land from its adverse we must ultimately dramatically reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. In addition, we must be ready to adapt our socio-economic activities to increasing changes in climatic conditions. In general, therefore, any comprehensive strategy for addressing climate change must include both mitigation and adaptation.
Tackling climate change to galvanize its opportunities for sustainable development in the country requires an improved level of political will and commitment; demonstrably in terms of improved funding and strengthened capacity, as well as improved understanding of issues through in-depth research and analysis. Nigeria needs to put in place a well-formulated, and legally binding strategic approach to guide a coherent national response to climate change to reduce its vulnerability and increase its resilience to this enigma.
In the final analysis, stopping climate change is up to us. Our actions today will determine the climate of tomorrow. By choosing to take action now we limit the future damage. The alternative is an environmental, economic and humanitarian catastrophe of our own making. With the commitment reflected in the inaugural speech of President Mohammadu Buhari, Nigeria may be more than ready to make relevant contributions for the common goods of the humankind and the protection of the climate system to which we owe our existence in general. Government, of course needs the active support of individuals, non-governmental organizations and the private sector operators to enhance the state institutional and financial capacities imperative to effectively address the challenge of climate change in the State. Together the battle against climate change impact can be won.
By Prof. Emmanuel Oladipo (Climate Change Specialist and Adjunct Professor, Department of Geography, University of Lagos, Nigeria. Email: olukayode_oladipo@yahoo.co.uk)
As Muhammadu Buhari takes over as President, Nigerians may have been given a new opportunity for change and transformational leadership in the fight against climate change.
President Muhammadu Buhari. Photo credit: informationng.com
“Climate change remains one of the biggest challenge facing the world today, from storms in America to heat waves in India and recalling the 2012 floods in Nigeria that eroded the small gains in development and democracy. We are reminded of need for leadership and the required but urgent and rigorous action on climate change,” said Esther Agbarakwe, co-founder, Nigeria Youth Coalition (AYICC).
“When it comes to climate change, people generally look towards experts for solutions forgetting to engage us, young people. As young Nigerians we are more disproportionately affected by the impact of climate change more than any generation and we will not watch as our future is risked by the inactions of our past leaders,” said Hamzat Lawal, communications officer, Africa Youth Initiative.
He added: “We commend President Muhammadu Buhari for making climate change one of his top policy actions and we express hope that the leadership we lacked in the years past will be demonstrated especially now as we transits from Millennium Development Goals to the Sustainable Development Goals and the new Climate Change Agreement to be decided in Paris during the Conference of parties (COP 21) later this year.
“We call on the President to focus on investing more in renewable energy which can create millions of job for young people and support local efforts in bridging the intergenerational gap in climate leadership. We also ask the President to give young people a voice in climate decision making at all levels.”
“As young people are working under the umbrella of the Nigeria Youth Climate Coalition (NYCC) and the African Youth Initiative on Climate change (AYICC) to empower each other through peer education, policy advocacy and social media awareness campaign such as #ClimateWednesday,” Esther confirmed. “We are hopeful that Nigeria will take her leadership place in the regional and international agenda in the fight against climate change and we are ready to support and hold the government accountable.”
WaterAid has welcomed the pledges of African leaders to eliminate inequalities and end open defecation in their countries by 2030, and to work towards giving every person access to safe sanitation and good hygiene.
The AfricaSan 4 conference. Photo credit: Javier Acebal/WSSC
Recognising that poor sanitation in Africa undermines the continent’s social and economic development and has serious health impacts on the population, including diarrhoea, African ministers responsible for sanitation and hygiene have committed to universal access by signing the Ngor Declaration on sanitation and hygiene.
The declaration closes AfricaSan 4, a conference of African governments, civil society and development partners from 25-27 May in Dakar. The event was inaugurated by the president of Senegal.
Ngor – meaning ‘dignity’ in Wolof, the Senegalese national language – is an ambitious declaration highlighting the commitment of African countries to put the elimination of open defecation among their top priorities, and advance towards the aspirations of the Sustainable Development Goals to reach everyone, everywhere with clean water and basic sanitation by 2030.
The Ngor declaration also emphasises the importance of eliminating inequalities, which will require redoubled efforts to reach the poorest, those living in slums or remote rural areas and other marginalised groups. Sanitation is to be understood as a service, rather than simply infrastructure – including work to change behaviours as well as the safe management of faecal sludge, a pressing issue especially in informal urban settlements.
These commitments, if followed up and monitored, will ensure the protection of dignity and health of everyone in Africa.
Mariame Dem, Head of West Africa for WaterAid, said: “We are glad to see this commitment from African leaders to re-evaluate priorities and fast-track progress on sanitation, to eliminate open defecation and bring better health and dignity to their citizens. These are ambitious commitments; with political will and financing, they are achievable.
“Every man, woman and child in the world deserves the dignity of a safe, hygienic toilet. Yet nearly 650 million sub-Saharan Africans are still without access to basic sanitation. We know that ambitious commitments alone are not enough. Leaders need to deliver on their promises.”
The timing of the Ngor declaration is critical. Poor sanitation in Africa undermines the continent’s social and economic development. It also carries serious health impacts. Diarrhoea kills 400,000 children in sub-Saharan Africa each year and causes the loss of an estimated 1-2.5% of GDP annually from medical costs and reduced productivity.
While the proportion of people practising open defecation in sub-Saharan Africa decreased by 11% between 1990 and 2012, the actual number of people forced to relieve themselves at roadsides and in fields has actually grown by 33 million, because of the continent’s rapid population growth. WaterAid analysis suggests at current rates of progress, sub-Saharan Africa will not meet even the original Millennium Development Goal on sanitation – to halve the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation – for 150 years.
Dr. Michael Ojo, WaterAid Nigeria’s Country Representative, said: “In Nigeria, the proportion of people practising open defecation between 1990 and 2012 has only decreased by 1%. This figure needs to change and progress must be accelerated if the country is to experience real development.
“Universal access means ensuring everyone everywhere has access to a safe, hygienic toilet at home, at school, in health centres and in other public places. This is the only way we can have a fighting chance of eliminating open defecation.
“The Ngor declaration is another promise we must hold our leaders accountable for but it is also one we all must take responsibility for making a happen.”
Less than four months remain before United Nations member states finalise new Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to end extreme poverty and will guide the path of development for the next 15 years. WaterAid is campaigning for a dedicated SDG on water and sanitation, and inclusion of water, sanitation and hygiene into goals, targets and indicators.
WaterAid has unveiled a redesigned WASHWatch reporting system to track African nations’ commitments to bringing water and sanitation to their citizens. It shows that 53.3 million Africans must be reached each year for the next 15 years if we are to reach everyone with basic sanitation by 2030. The map also shows that although 0.5 million people are currently gaining access to basic sanitation in Nigeria every year, this will need to increase by an extra 12 million people to reach everyone by 2030.
Governments meeting in Bonn, Germany, for the next two weeks to search for a sustainable solution to the global problem of climate change, will do so against the backdrop of the latest devastating climate phenomenon with India experiencing unprecedented heat waves that have killed more than 1,000 people already.
Men sleeping on concrete road dividers during a heat wave in Delhi, India. Photo credit: cnn.com
Global humanitarian and advocacy network ACT Alliance said that India’s heat wave alongside the increase in climate related disasters across the world in the last few years shows the urgent need for governments to agree to a global climate agreement that will support people already impacted today.
The UN climate talks, which are underway from 1-11 June, will see parties revising the draft climate agreement text, to move the negotiations forward for a final agreement to be signed in December this year when ministers meet in Paris.
ACT Alliance said that while the draft text is long and full of varying proposals from different governments, it includes many good proposals, such as commitments to scale up new and additional climate finance and to address the effects of loss and damage.
“If the best parts are picked out, we will get an agreement that can promote a global transformation towards green, low carbon and resilient future,” said Mattias Söderberg, head of the ACT Alliance delegation in Bonn. “Such an agreement would save lives, decrease the risk for conflicts, and support sustainable development and growth.”
While governments agree that there is need for climate action, conflict remains as to how to move forward, with a real risk of some of the most critical elements being lost from the agreement, Söderberg said.
“The key questions include who will contribute with the necessary climate finance? How will efforts and responsibilities be shared? And, which challenges should be addressed through the Paris agreement? Parties are far apart, with different priorities.”
ACT Alliance Global Climate Ambassador Archbishop Thabo Cecil Makgoba, Head of Anglican Church in South Africa, agreed: “There is a great risk that the text will be watered down. Many of the good proposals are also controversial, and they may be cut out to enable agreement based on consensus. For people who are already being affected by climate change, it is crucial that the ambition isn’t cut out. We need climate action, and we call on governments to consider how their decisions affect those who are most vulnerable to climate change. We desperately hope that governments will do the needful by agreeing to elements that will enhance climate action.”
In the months to come governments are expected to present their national climate targets, with a few countries such as the EU, USA, Russia and Mexico having already made their pledges, which Söderberg said were far from what is needed.
“In light of the recent pledges the need for a global agreement becomes clear. National commitments are far from enough, compared to the recommendations by science. Thus there is a need for global initiatives to pull the ambit i on up.”
